Early Republic of Rome

The Early Republic of Rome (circa 509 BCE – 264 BCE) marks a transformative period in Roman history, beginning with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy and the establishment of a republican form of government. During this era, power shifted from a single king to elected magistrates and a complex system of checks and balances dominated by the Roman Senate and the popular assemblies. The early Republic was characterized by intense social and political struggles between the patricians (aristocratic families) and the plebeians (common citizens), culminating in critical reforms that gradually expanded political rights. This period also saw Rome begin its expansion across the Italian peninsula, forging alliances and asserting dominance through both diplomacy and military strength. The foundations of Roman law, governance, and republican ideals that would influence Western civilization for centuries were laid during this dynamic and formative age.

Early Republic of Rome

Early Republic of Rome

Introduction

The Early Republic of Rome, spanning from around 509 BCE to 264 BCE, marks a critical phase in Roman history when the city transitioned from monarchy to a republican form of government. This period began with the expulsion of the last Roman king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and the establishment of a new political system based on elected officials and representative institutions. Governed by two annually elected consuls and guided by the influential Senate, the Roman Republic was built on principles of civic duty, shared power, and legal order. However, this era was also defined by internal class struggles, especially between the patricians (nobility) and plebeians (commoners), which led to key reforms like the Laws of the Twelve Tables. During the Early Republic, Rome expanded its influence across the Italian peninsula, setting the stage for its later dominance of the Mediterranean world. This foundational era shaped Rome’s political identity and laid the groundwork for the Roman Republic’s future growth.

Custom of ancestors

Roman sources from all periods, beginning already in the early Republic, reveal certain common values that all Romans held dear and considered to be foundational for their state. First, Romans had a strong respect for the past and were averse to change. Indeed, reformers had a difficult time passing their proposals in all periods of Roman history. The term for this reverence for the past, mos maiorum, “custom of ancestors” or “custom of elders,” is telling. While innovation is a revered value in the modern world, Romans believed that innovation amounted to disrespect for their ancestors. Ancestral custom, which had first made Rome great, had to be respected, and successful reformers, such as the emperor Augustus, managed to phrase their reforms as a return to something old, rather than as something new.

Three important values

Three additional values that are key to understanding the Romans are auctoritas, “power” or “authority;” dignitas, roughly meaning “dignity;” and gravitas, “seriousness.” Each citizen in the state had a degree of auctoritas, that intangible quality that made others obey him, but the degree of auctoritas varied, depending on one’s social and political standing. Augustus, Rome’s first emperor, would later describe his position in the state as having more auctoritas than anyone else. The other two qualities, dignitas and gravitas, were connected and reflected one’s bearing and behavior as a true Roman. Jocularity was not valued, but seriousness reflected a particularly Roman conduct and determination. It is striking that Romans never smiled in portraits. The austere facial expression, instead, conveyed their power and superiority to others, whom they had conquered.

Two divisions of Roman citizens

While sharing common values, Romans were also deeply aware of social divisions between themselves. From its earliest time, Roman citizen population was divided into two orders: the patricians, defined as the descendants from the first one hundred senators appointed to the Roman aristocratic Senate by king Romulus, and the plebeians, that is, everyone who was not a patrician. The plebeians had their own political assembly, the Plebeian Council, while all Roman citizens also belonged to the Centuriate Assembly, which was responsible for annual elections for top political offices.

Conflict in the early Republic

The period of the early Republic, following the expulsion of the kings, was a time of conflict for the two orders, as patricians tried to establish a government that reserved all political power to themselves, whereas the plebeians fought for the opportunity to hold political and religious offices. Although they did not wield any political power at first, they discovered in the early fifth century that their most powerful weapon was secession, that is, departure en masse from the city, until the patricians acquiesced to a demand. While much about the Conflict of the Orders—just as anything else about the history of the early Republic—is shrouded in legend, it is possible to track its progress through the evidence of legislations that the Romans passed.

Plebeian Council

In 494 BCE, following the first plebeian secession, the Roman Senate allowed the plebeians to elect plebeian tribunes. An office that eventually was reserved for senators, it was originally merely an opportunity for plebeians to elect officers in the Plebeian Council, the assembly of all plebeian citizens, who would advocate for them.

The Twelve Tables

Plebeians next appear to have advocated for a public display of the laws, in order to protect the poor during lawsuits. The result was the first Roman legal code, the Twelve Tables, which was inscribed on twelve tables c. 450 BCE and displayed in public. One of the laws included was a ban on intermarriage between plebeians and patricians, showing a clear commitment on the part of the patricians to maintain the separation of the orders. It is important to note, however, that with the gradual decline in the number of patrician families over the course of the Roman Republic, most began to intermarry with prominent plebeian families.

Consul of the Republic

The highest political office in the Republic, that of the consul, continued to be reserved solely for patricians until 367 BCE, when two senators sponsored the Licinian-Sextian law. The law required that one of the two consuls elected each year had to be plebeian. The phrasing of the law was significant, as it allowed the possibility that both consuls elected in a particular year could be plebeian, although this event did not happen in reality until 215 BCE. Finally, the legislation that modern historians have considered to have ended the early Republican Conflict of the Orders is the Lex Hortensia of 287 BCE. This law made all legislations passed by the Plebeian Council binding on all Romans, patricians and plebeians alike.

Influence of the plebeians

As historians connect the dots in the story of the Conflict of the Orders through these legislations, one trend that emerges is the gradual weakening of the patricians along with the growing influence of the plebeians on Roman government. Indeed, by the third century, a number of plebeian families were as wealthy and successful as patrician families, whereas some old patrician families had fallen on hard times.

Conclusion

The Early Republic of Rome was a formative and dynamic era that laid the political, legal, and military foundations of Roman civilization. Through the replacement of monarchy with a republican system, Rome experimented with new forms of governance based on shared power, civic responsibility, and the rule of law. Despite internal tensions—particularly the prolonged conflict between patricians and plebeians—the Republic evolved through key reforms that gradually expanded citizen rights and representation. Rome’s military conquests and diplomatic alliances during this period extended its control over much of the Italian peninsula, establishing it as a rising regional power. Ultimately, the Early Republic shaped the character of Roman politics and society, setting a precedent for the expansion and endurance of Roman influence in the centuries to come.

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