Arts and Crafts Of the Indus Civilization

Discover the rich artistic heritage of the Indus Civilization through its intricate arts and crafts. Explore the masterful ceramics of this ancient culture, decorated with bold geometric patterns and stylized animal motifs. Discover finely crafted jewelry that showcases the skillful use of metals such as gold and copper, reflecting their advanced metallurgical techniques.

Admire the terracotta figurines that provide insight into the daily lives and religious beliefs of the people. Immerse yourself in the world of seal carving, where intricate script and symbolism reveal a sophisticated writing system and trade connections. The architecture of the Indus Civilization, with well-planned cities and advanced drainage systems, attests to their engineering prowess.

Experience the art of the Indus artisans, whose creativity has transcended time and left behind a legacy of beauty and innovation that continues to captivate us today. Explore the arts and crafts of the Indus Civilization and unlock the secrets of an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus Valley over 4,000 years ago.

Arts and Crafts Of the Indus Civilization

Introduction: Arts and Crafts of the Indus Civilization

Harappan artisans show a degree of uniformity similar to that found in land-use planning and building plans. Indeed, it is so distinctive that it is possible to characterize each vessel with a single set of examples drawn from only one place. It is not yet determined whether this feature was achieved through the centralization of production, coupled with the efficiency of distribution, or other factors, but in either case, it requires special attention.

art and craft of indus valley civilization pdf, art of indus valley civilization class 11 notes, what evidence of the painting are found in indus valley civilization class 11

Technology of metals

• (i) A large The Harappans used a large number of metals for various purposes. Veral metals were used by the Harappans for various purposes. Copper, in its unalloyed form, was the most widespread Harappan metal. The main tools made of copper are razors, chisels, knives, arrowheads, spearheads, celts, hooks, saws, swords, etc. The ball was The bronze sculptures are represented by a dancing girl from Mohenjodar, as well as animal figures of dogs, bulls, birds, etc., shot by me.
• (ii) There is no doubt that gold was one of the first metals sought after by man for its attractive natural appearance. Panning or panning gold dust was probably the main means used in ancient times to obtain gold. There is as yet insufficient evidence in the Indian subcontinent to indicate the nature and use of gold in pre-Harappan times. There is more evidence of the Indus Valley Civilization. Gold items are fairly common, though by no means abundant. Gold occurs in the form of beads, pendants, amulets, brooches, pins, and other small personal ornaments, including small hollow conical caps with internal brazed eyes, no doubt for use as forehead ornaments and identical to modern examples. Much of the Indus gold is light in color, indicating a high silver content, or rather, an unrefined electrum. This suggests that it originates from the quartzite cliffs of Karnataka rather than panning.
• (iii) Silver first appeared in the Indus Civilization. The fact that it was relatively more common than gold is evidenced by the number of large vessels made of silver and the frequency of other finds. Apart from beads and smaller ornaments, the shapes of the dishes almost always repeat those made of copper. A silver buckle found at Harappa with a soldered cross pattern of gold wire and gold beads and a shell-inlaid silver boss are among the finer examples of workmanship. The Indus cities also provide evidence that lead—often found in association with silver—was imported in the form of ingots and was occasionally used to make objects such as vases or plumb lines.
• (iv) Lead, arsenic, antimony, and nickel were also used by the Harappans. Arsenic was used to increase the hardness of artifacts by alloying it with copper. Arsenic could be used as a deoxidizing agent for closed castings or added to increase hardness. The Harappans also used alloys of nickel, arsenic, and lead.
• (v) The beautiful copper and bronze vessels, which are excellent examples of Harappan metalwork, were produced by hammering the given shape. Another technique appeared in the late Harappan period: lapping or joining two parts to form a compound vessel. There is no doubt that such odd objects as cast bronze figures of people or animals or small models of carts were the products of specialist workshops in one or another of the cities. These copper and bronze casting products illustrate that this process was well understood throughout the Harappan period. Among the finds are copper ingots in the shape of a loaf of bread. Brick kilns have been discovered at a number of sites, and some of these were probably associated with copper processing. True copper minerals (e.g., chrysocol, chalcopyrite, malachite, etc.) are rare at Harappan sites. In the core areas of the greater Indus valley, other metallic minerals such as hematite, lollingite, antimony, cinnabar, cerussite, galena, and an unidentified type of lead have recently been recovered from excavations at Harappa. Although some of these metal ores may have been used in copper smelting and alloying processes, they may have been used for other purposes such as dyes, cosmetics, medicines, or even poisons.
• (vi) Apart from the Shortugai site, where there is evidence of gold processing, most of the indicators for metal processing (see ore fragments, furnaces, slag, tools, and metal objects, both finished and semi-finished) at Harappan sites are associated with copper processing. Copper or copper alloys can be divided into four categories: (1) raw copper (derived from smelting and rich in sulfur), (2) refined copper, (3) arsenical bronze, and (4) tin bronze. No natural copper objects have yet been identified. No confirmed iron or brass objects have been reported from Harappan phase sites.

Pottery

• (i) A large quantity of pottery, both plain and decorated, has been found. All decorative objects are coated with an opaque red slip, on which patterns have been created with thick black pigment. The clay, obtained from the beds here, was tempered with sand and contained mica or line particles. The pottery is strikingly identical at Harappa and other sites.
• (ii) However, recent advances in ceramic studies of the Harappan phase are advances in defining regional styles of ceramic production. The study is expected to render the term “typical Harappan pottery” a meaningless phrase, as there are significant differences between pottery produced in large urban centers and that produced in regional centers and the countryside.
• (iii) Harappan ware was shaped on the potter’s wheel. Pottery circles, which are made of wood, have not survived. The ovens in which the pots were baked were uncovered. These ovens, 2.1 m in diameter, are round with a perforated floor on which the vessels were placed. Below this floor was a space in which a wood fire was lit. The smoke was vented through an opening in the dome roof. The firing was skillfully controlled, as most of the ceramics were carefully fired, although some were overfired. The slip used was a red ocher that came from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. Once the vessel was shaped on the wheels or was quickly painted over it, the designs were then painted onto this red surface with a black brush. The black color was derived from the magnificent hematite. Designs include a series of intersecting circles (a pattern found exclusively in the Indus culture), a tree placed in metopes, a motif resembling a large crest, a checkerboard pattern, triangles, solar devices, etc. Figures of animals, birds, snakes, or fish occur rarely. Animals are shown with grass and birds on trees. No human figure is shown on the pottery from Mohenjo Daro, but several pieces of pottery discovered from Harappa depict a man and a child. Pairing was very popular as a means of distinguishing one motif from another.
• (iv) The thick red ocher layer also closed the pores of the pottery and prevented unwanted evaporation. Containers used to store water were waterproofed inside with a bitumen-based preparation. Small vessels were painted polychrome, red, black, green, and very rarely yellow. These colors were applied after the vessel was fired. Polychrome pottery is rare and limited to small sherds. White was used both as a separate color and as a sip.
• (v) Indus pottery has smooth bases. The few ring bases discovered are on handmade pottery that is fired at home. Since most floors are made of hard earth, containers with a rounded or pointed base should not be suitable. Large jars were used as grain pantries; other jugs, partially buried under the floor, served as receptacles for family valuables and ornaments. Large containers were also used as cesspools. Ceramic drain pipes were used, and fragments of broken pottery were laid as a porous layer under the bathroom floors. Some of the broken glasses were probably used on water wheels. Hundreds of poorly fired and damaged pieces of pottery found near the kilns were thrown away. One vessel in the shape of a ram was probably used as an inkstand. Curiously, oval vessels, tripods, and those with relief figures of animals are absent.
• (vi) Earthen traps were used to catch mice, and chattering birds were kept as pets in the potter’s cage. Clay was used to make drainage pipes, wheels, spindles, whorls, bracelets, etc. There were plenty of toys and other household items made of clay.
• (vii) At Mohenjodar, in the late levels, pottery workshops were established inside residential areas, indicating a changing pattern of activity at different chronological stages. This was similarly the case at Harappa (Mound F), but more recently, a series of kilns at Mound E revealed the presence of pottery workshops, indicating long-term hereditary craft activities in a segregated part of the city. This suggests that while some ceramic production may have moved to different areas of the city, other workshops remained in the same location for hundreds of years. Based on stratigraphic analysis at Lal Shah (ca. third quarter of the 3rd millennium BCE), where Pracchia (1985) excavated a series of six pottery firing kilns with perforated grates supported by a central column, it has been suggested that the kilns were not used simultaneously and were probably used seasonally for 10-15 years. Ivory and faience work: relatively few examples of ivory carving have been found. They include combs, probably similar to those imported from Ur, carved cylinders that were perhaps used as seals, small sticks, and pins. A unique piece of heavily damaged plate with a human figure in low relief is noteworthy.
• (viii) During the mature Harappan phase, glass or glass paste, commonly referred to as ‘faience’, reached a very high level of production, approaching the quality of early glass. Harappan faience was produced by some techniques. Most of the earthenware objects were made using a unique technology that first required the production of glass frit. The driven frit was then moistened with water and a flow of plant ash, molded into objects, and fired again (Kenoyer, 1994). The glass matrix and outer glaze of their objects were produced using the efflorescence technique. Also known as compact faience, this glass faience was used to make bracelets, small beads, miniature vessels, and miniature animal figurines. No other area of ​​the ancient world is known to produce this type of glass faience.
• (ix) In addition to the above forms and works of art, art forms also show some geometric and abstract designs on ceramics. At Lothal, B.B. Lal identified a painting on a vase possibly depicting the folk tale “The Thirsty Crow” and on another Jar from the same site, he identified a depiction of the folk tale “Cunning Fox”.

art of indus valley civilization questions and answers, a specimen of harappan art information, arts and crafts of the indus valley civilization

Lapidary

The lapidary craft was widely practiced and its products included the manufacture of ornaments from semi-precious stones such as agate, carnelian, jasper, quartz, lapis lazuli, turquoise, amazonite, etc. Beads were once considered minor antiquities, but contemporary studies have demonstrated their importance in understanding the social and ritual status, ethnic identity, economic controls, and trade and exchange networks that connected distant settlements of the Indus tradition.

The discovery of agate bead workshops at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Chanhudaro, Nagwada, Lewan, Ghazi Shah, Rahmandheri, Banawali, Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada, etc., and the bead processing areas or markets found at many other sites indicate that they were a critical feature of all Harappan settlements.

Mackay was able to reconstruct a broad outline of the production sequence of carnelian beads, including beautiful long-barreled specimens, probably the subject of long-distance trade with Mesopotamia. The long ball, produced at Chanhudaro, required a difficult and expensive production sequence that probably involved multiple cycles of firing, cutting with metal tools and chiseling, smoothing, and multi-stage drilling with highly specialized drills. These drills are a specific Harappan type referred to as “tapered cylinder drills” from the early Indus phase. The drills used for agate and carnelian at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Nagwada, and Dholavira were made from a very distinctive rock named “Ernestite” after Ernest Mackay.

It is also believed that many of the long carnelian beads found at Ur were made in the Indus Valley, while many may have been made in Mesopotamia by migrating artisans from the Indus, members of the so-called Melluhan minority attested in Mesopotamian texts.

Steatite

The term ‘steatite’ or soapstone refers to various types of soft rock common in Baluchistan, the Aravallis, and the Deccan Plateau. The earliest known bead-making workshop is the disco bead-making area excavated at Mehrgarh, which dates to the 5th millennium BC. Steatite balls, both fired and unfired were produced at this site, along with shell discs. Harappan artisans went further and developed complex production techniques, including carving, glazing, powder painting, mixing powder into an artificial paste, and firing. Apart from beads, pendants, marquetry, etc., the Harappans used steatite to make seals and inscription tablets, amulets, and even large sculptures, especially the famous busts known as “Priest and King”. This wide range of uses shows that steatite was more than just a versatile raw material and had significant socio-ritual implications. The procurement of steatite depended on medium- or long-distance trade routes. The large amount of steatite shows that this trade must have been massive.

Shell production

Shellwork was an important specialized craft, the products of which were found in large quantities in the cities for the manufacture of bracelets, beads, inlays, ladles, and figurines. The conch was one of several popular marine species.

Three distinct areas

The west coast, the east coast (Kutch and Khambat), and the coast of Oman were used as raw materials. Excavations at coastal sites such as Balakot, Lothal, Nageshwar, and Kuntasi have revealed that they were all resource centers with local workshops for the manufacture of bangles and other items.

There is evidence that raw materials were transported to inland locations and to workshops or locations in large cities. At Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, and Harappa, a wide variety of objects are produced for markets in the city or nearby settlements.

The production technology was completely standardized. All remote workshops used a specific shell splitting and cutting technique, and even the width and copper/bronze saw blade were identical. A study by Kenoyer (1993) showed that the saw used to cut the mantle had a long convex cutting edge that was extremely thin, between 0.4 and 0.6 mm, and was bidirectionally serrated. Furthermore, the saw’s cutting capabilities were equivalent to those of modern steel saws used in Bengal.

Earthenware bracelets

(i) The manufacture of earthenware bangles is an important urban craft in the Harappan context. Evidence of their manufacture appears to be almost entirely confined to Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The Harappans adopted sophisticated technology. The result was the production of high-quality ceramic ornaments that have no parallel in the ancient or modern world. It was not produced outside the Harappan cities. The beginnings of this industry began in the pre-Harappan phase when Vidale observed many partially sintered gray bracelets on the Juderjodaro surface. Similarly, ceramic bracelets have been found in the early Harappan levels of Harappa and Rehman Dheri.

(ii) These bangles are generally made of highly refined clays. After firing, the largest tamper inclusion does not exceed 20 microns in many cases. Schneider suggested that these objects were made using molds, but Kenoyer showed that they were made by throwing clay cylinders on a high-speed wheel and cutting and polishing them with sharp pointed tools, which left distinct, fine parallel marks on them. The manufacturing operation also included the production of small firing vessels or troughs into which unfired objects were placed to be fired. This vessel at Mohenjodar was probably subject to bureaucratic control, as a very fine treatment of a unicorn seal was found on the mouth of a burnt sagger, indicating that someone or some institution was responsible for the contents of the saggers before firing. Many fragments also bear small inscriptions, perhaps giving names or initials of names referring to the craftsman or workshop or the owner. However, this technology disappeared with the decline of its social context.

Lithic Industries

(i) The Indus Valley, with its severely limited resources of workable stone, was remarkable for the exploitation of certain sites with good supplies of suitable material over the ages. One example is the Rohri Hills, where stonework continued during the mature Harappan phase. At Sukkur, artisans appear to have sat cross-legged in a chosen spot in a cleared area, and the actual places where they sat were still recognizable when Allchins visited the site in 1976.

(ii) It is clear from the study of the site(s) that the Harappans used bush tools and other types of chipped and ground stone tools for specific technological and subsistence activities that could not be performed with metal tools. The Harappan lithic repertoire included both blade and flake technologies for the production of specialized forms of drills, scrapers, cutting tools, and sickle components, as well as unmodified blades and flakes. These tools were used for subsistence and the processing of other materials in specialized crafts such as lapidary and the production of objects from soft stone, wood, shells, ceramics, and possibly also for processing metals (engraving and drilling). Techniques used to produce chert flakes included heat treatment, direct hammer tapping, indirect punch tapping, and bipolar flaking. back retouch, pecking, grinding, polishing, etc. Pelegrin suggested that some form of pressure technique would have been necessary to produce the long, parallel-sided blades characteristic of the Harappan phase. Kenoyer identified the use of inverse indirect percussion for the production of blades, weights, polishing tools, and bead blanks.

Spinning and Weaving

From the finding of many spindles and spindle whorls in houses in the Indus Valley, it is evident that cotton and wool spinning was very common. The fact that spinning was practiced by both the rich and the poor is evidenced by warps made of expensive earthenware, cheap ceramics, and seashells. Due to the nature of the soil, no textiles of any kind have survived in the Indus Valley. A thorough examination of the pieces of cotton found attached to a silver vase in the textile laboratory shows that it is a variety of the coarser Indian cotton now cultivated in upper India and not the wild species. Some other samples of woven materials adhering to various copper objects were also found to be mostly cotton, but some were bast fibers. From the ruins, there is no indication of the existence of flax, which is now largely cultivated in India and was known in ancient Elam and Egypt. The purple dye on a piece of cotton was thought to be made from the madder plant. Dye vats found at the site show that dyeing was practiced.

explain how art and craft was an important industry in the indus valley civilization, art and craft of indus valley civilization pdf

Scientific knowledge

(i) The Harappan civilization was the cradle of mathematics, from which both the concept of numbers and the number system originated.

The numerical system developed by the Harappans contained symbols for most numbers and several innovations for mathematical manipulations such as addition and multiplication.

The Harappan number system uses decimal and additive multiplication. There are symbols for the digits from 4 to 100 and 1000 and their derivatives.

The number system that was first used by the Harappans later found its way to other ancient civilizations.

(ii) The Harappans, as the architects of the Indus Valley Civilization, are known to have built the world’s first tidal port at Lothal at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.

They had a high degree of knowledge regarding ebb and flow and carried on a brisk overseas trade with Bahrain and African countries. They were also familiar with medical sciences and used various herbs and medicines to treat various diseases.

Art

(i) The field of art is essentially a product of the fields of craft and technology. All works of Harappan art, including clay and terracotta figurines, stone and bronze sculptures, seals, and beads, are the products of artisans.

(ii) The custom of making simple figurines in clay and later in terracotta began at Mehrgarh in the sixth or even seventh millennium BC. The practice continued in all periods of civilization. Of the people portrayed, some are people and some are animals, among others. The human figurines are mostly female, mostly single figures, but sometimes also holding a child. They are often depicted with heavy ornaments, jewelry, and elaborate headdresses. In one case, a woman is kneeling in front of some activity, perhaps making dough; in another, a woman is holding a basket of bread. The animals are mostly humped Indian cattle, but there are also some nice depictions of heavy Indian bison (gaurs), buffalo, sheep, goats, Indian rhinoceros, elephants, boars, hares, dogs, pigs, monkeys, turtles, and birds. Some small terracotta human masks, some with horns and small beards, were also found, as well as a lion mask. There is also a small class of grotesques, sometimes human and sometimes animal. Among the inanimate objects, the most common are terracotta models of oxcarts and plows. We also have several examples of compound animals. This terracotta art served in some cases as children’s toys and in some cases as household religious icons. For the former, there are climbing monkeys with holes punched for string, cattle with movable heads turning on a pole, and models of wagons and plows. In the second, religious role, female figures are believed to represent mother goddesses, while some grotesque figures resemble malevolent spirits.

Stone sculptures

The most monumental products are stone sculptures, which have a distinctly urban character. The vast majority of examples come from Mohenjo Daro, and a small number come from Harappa. Because stone was a rare and expensive material, its use was limited to special purposes. The stone used was usually either steatite, limestone, or alabaster.

This feature seems to have always been like cult icons. The foremost is the priest. Badly weathered limestone head, 14cm high, too worn for description Another limestone head, 18 cm high, with wavy hair held together by a fillet, a shaved upper lip, and shell-shaped ears, was discovered in Harappa.

The third statue is a seated headless alabaster male figure, 28 cm tall, wearing a thin scarf on his left shoulder and under his arm. It was found in the citadel building of Mohenjodar. A fourth limestone head, 19 cm high and badly worn, was found against the south wall of the citadel at Mohenjodar.

A fifth, much-weathered alabaster statue of a crouching man, 42 cm tall, from Mohenjodar has lost most of its details; the face appears bearded. The sixth is a fragment of a limestone figurine, previously polished, showing a kneeling hand. It was found in the citadel of Mohenjo-daro. The seventh is a badly damaged 22-cm-tall figure of a seated man with his hands on his knees. A series of holes drilled just above the figure’s ankles appear to represent the ankles. It was found near the Collegiate Building in Mohenjodaro.

The eighth is an unfinished figure of a crouching man in limestone, about 22 cm tall, with a fillet around the head. It was found in Mohenjodar. The ninth is a fragment of a small limestone figure of an animal, 11 cm high, possibly a ram. It was found in Harappa.

The tenth is a limestone figurine, 25 cm high, of a folded animal. He has a ram’s head and an elephant’s trunk. The body is the body of a ram. It was found in Mohenjodar.

The two figurines, only 10 cm high, are male torsos, showing the sensitivity and temperament of modeling. Both are from Harappa. One of them, a dancer, was found at the site of the granary. It is hyphonic and may represent the dancing Shiva, Nataraja.

The second figure is a young man who is missing his legs, arms, and head. The anatomical detail is beautifully elaborated.

Bronze figures

The preparation of bronze sculptures, as well as stone sculptures, is very small. It includes two small bronze dancing girls, both fragmentary, several bronze figures of animals, buffaloes, and rams, and some models of carts or tikkas.

The Diamabad treasure consists of a magnificent chariot drawn by a pair of bullocks, an elephant, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo. The entire series is made using the lost-way method and shows remarkable technical sophistication.

Two small models of bullock carts and tikkas found at Chanhudaro and Harappa (located 650 km apart) are virtually identical in every detail. A stone statue of a mongoose (37 cm) was also recently found in Dholavira.

seal

(i) Seals, with their attractive off-white appearance and slightly glossy finish, are an outstanding asset of the Indus people and were used throughout the length and breadth of that civilization. These seals are made of steatite and range in size from 1 cm to 5 cm. Two main types are seen: the first, square with a carved animal and inscription, and the second, rectangular with only the inscription. Square seals have a small perforated tab on the back, while rectangular seals have a hole on the back of the seal itself for stringing. The seals were first cut with a saw, then shaped with a knife, and finally finished with an abrasive. A small drill, chisel, or triangular cutter was used for carving. After the carving was finished, the seal was coated with alkali and heated. Both of these types have been found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Chanhudaro issued only square seals. Circular seals made of pottery and faience and a few of stone and metal without any inscription have been found at Jhukar.

(ii) Several burnt clay seals have come to light. The animals on the seals are drawn very carefully. The figure of the humpbacked bull shows the muscles tearing under the skin and the hump falling at the back. Another seal depicts a roaring tiger, an elephant, a unicorn, a rhinoceros, and so on.

(iii) Seals were very popular; more than 1,200 seals have been found in Mohenjodar alone. The most notable of these is the ‘Pashupati Seal’ depicting Shiva seated on a stool flanked by an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, and buffalo. Under the stool are two antelopes or goats. Marshall identified it as Shiva in his Pashupati (Lord of Animals) form. On one seal, the goddess stands naked among the branches of a pipal tree, before which a worshiper kneels. Behind the worshiper stands a goat with a human face, and seven devotees dance below it. A scene very often repeated on seals shows a man restraining two roaring tigers with outstretched arms. This is reminiscent of the Sumerian Gilgamesh and his lions.

(iv) The animal most frequently met with in the Indus seals is a humpless bull, shown in profile with its horns folded over and pointing forward. For this characteristic, he was generally called a unicorn. In front of the beast stands a short ornate column that Marshall identified as a “censer”, Mackay called it a “cult object”, and Mahadevan said the object was used in Rigvedic ritual as a strainer to purify the sacred drink, called soma. According to Dhavalikar and Atra, this cult object was a kind of huge yet portable fire altar, probably made of copper, bronze, or even some precious metal. On two Harappan seals, the object is shown as being carried in a procession.

Conclusion

The Indus Valley Civilization had very skilled artists and craftsmen. The artists produced various artifacts, seals, ceramics, terracotta figurines, etc. They created highly realistic human and animal figures. Artists also have vivid imaginations and a fine sense of art. The character modeling was done very carefully. Statues were also found that were ennobled. The Indus Valley people also made terracotta figurines and seals. Seals were made of agate, chert, copper, and terracotta. The seals were made for commercial purposes. One of the important seals was that of Pashupati.

(FAQ) Questions and Answers about the Arts and Crafts Of the Indus Civilization