The Aryan society, which emerged around 1500 BCE, primarily refers to the Indo-European-speaking people who migrated to the Indian subcontinent. This society is known for its structured social hierarchy, which eventually formed the basis of the caste system in ancient India. The Aryans were pastoralists and warriors, with a lifestyle centered around agriculture and cattle rearing. Their religious beliefs, outlined in the Vedas, were polytheistic, with gods representing natural forces. Aryan society laid the foundations for Hindu culture, language (Sanskrit), and social practices that shaped early Indian civilization.
The Aryan Society
Historical Facts | Aryan Society |
Time Period | Around 1500 BCE – 500 BCE (Vedic Period) |
Geographical Location | Initially settled in Northwest India, particularly the Punjab region; later spread to the Ganges valley. |
Language | Sanskrit, an Indo-European language that influenced later Indian languages. |
Religion | Polytheistic; worship of nature gods like Indra (war), Agni (fire), and Varuna (water); Vedic rituals. |
Social Structure | Highly stratified; basis for the later caste system (varnas), including Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. |
Key Contributions | Introduction of Sanskrit, foundation of Hindu philosophy, early Vedic literature, development of the caste system. |
Introduction
The sacred literature, of which a short account has been given in the last chapter, covers a period, roughly speaking, of about 1500 years. For, although, as noted above, it is impossible to assign precise dates, the period 2000 to 600 B.C. may be looked upon as a fair approximation. For the history of the Aryans during this period, we are almost solely dependent upon these books, and, when carefully studied, they furnish a valuable account of the life led by the Aryans during these 1500 years. The Samhita of the Rigveda, being the earliest literary production of the Aryans, reveals to us the earliest phase of Aryan life, and we proceed to give a short sketch of its essential features.
The home of the Aryans
- (1) First, as to the home of the Aryans. The valleys of the river Sindhu and its tributaries, and of the Sarasvati and the Drishadvati, formed their earliest settlements in India proper. Although they were thus mainly confined to the province now called the Panjab, their outer settlements reached further castward, to the banks of the Ganges and the Jumna. On the other hand, some Aryan tribes still lingered on the western side of the Indus, on the banks of the Kabul, the Swat, the Kurram, and the Gomal rivers.
- (2) The Aryans had given up their nomadic habit and lived in fixed dwelling houses. These were made of wood and bamboo, and did not differ much from those in Indian villages at the present day. Only we sometimes hear of ‘removable houses built of wood, which could be taken in parts and re-fixed at different sites.’
Family life of the Aryans
- (1) Within these homes, the Aryans developed a healthy family life, the proto-type of what we see around us today. It rested upon the sacred tie of marriage, and ‘the old Aryans knew of no more tender relation than that between husband and wife. The wife, though subject to her husband, was the mistress of the household and had authorities over farm laborers and slaves. Her importance is sufficiently indicated by the fact that she participated with her husband in all religious ceremonies, and we read how, in early dawn, the loving pair, with a harmonious mind and in fitting words, sends up their prayers to the gods above.
- (2) There was no purdah system. The women spoke to the people gathered at her husband’s house, and went to feasts and general sacrifices, gaily decorated and decked with ornaments. They were fully attentive to their household duties, and we have a refreshing picture in the Rigveda as to how they rose at early hours, set the household servants at work, and made themselves active, singing songs while working. Their education was not neglected, and some ladies like Visvavara, Apala, and Ghosha, even composed mantras and rose to the rank of Rislis.
- (3) Besides the wife or wives (for polygamy was not unknown), the parents, brothers, and sisters formed the other important members of an Arvan family. It was characterised by sweet and affectionate relations between its members, which form such a distinctive feature of the Hindu society, and have been so fascinatingly described in later times in immortal works like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Political organization of the Aryans
- (1) The family served as the foundation of the state. A number of families, bound together by real or supposed ties of kindred, formed a clan; several clans formed a district; and a number of these districts composed a tribe, the highest political unit. Various tribes are mentioned in the Rigveda, such as the Bharatas, Matsyas, Krivis, Tritsus, and the well-known group of five tribes, viz., the Turvasas, Yadus, Purus, Druhyus, and Anus. The organisation of the tribal state was varied in character.
- (2) In some cases the system of hereditary monarchy prevailed, while in others there was a sort of oligarchy, with several members of the royal family exercising the power in common. Some tribes again had a democratic organisation, and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people. ‘But whatever the form of government, the head of the state was nowhere absolute but everywhere limited by the will of the people, which made its power felt in assemblies of the clan, the district, and the tribe.
- (3) The assemblies were known as Sabha and Samiti, terms which have subsisted up to the present day. Political affairs were freely discussed in these bodies, and debates ran high, everyone wishing to convert others to his faith. But all the same, their ideal was a harmonious activity of the different members of the assembly, and this is beautifully set forth in the concluding hymn of the Rigveda:
“Assemble, speak together, let your minds be all of one accord. The place is common; common the assembly; common the mind; so be their thought united. A common purpose do I lay before you. One and the same be your resolve, and be your minds of one accord. United be the happily agreeing. thoughts of all that all may happily agree.”
Food and Drink of the Aryans
(1) Sabha, When the serious business of the assembly was over, the Sabha or assembly hall was converted into a clubhouse, where the people ate and drank, talking merrily all the while. Both animal and vegetable foods were taken by the Aryans. Not only fishes and birds, goats and rams, but horses, buffaloes, and even bulls were slaughtered for their food.
(2) Rice, barley, beans, and sesamums formed the chief vegetable food—stuffs, and they ate not only boiled rice as the Bengalis do, but also bread and cakes made of Hour, like the other peoples of India. Milk and its various preparations, such as ghee, butter, and curds, together with fruits, vegetables, sugarcane, and various parts of the lotus plant formed favourite commodities of food and drink.
(3) It would be a mistake to suppose, however, that our forefathers quenched their thirst by milk and water alone. They used stronger drinks, the chief among which were sură, a brandy made from corn and barley, and the juice of Soma plant. To such an extent were they addicted to the last that they even raised it to the position of a god.
Occupations of the Aryans
- (1) Agriculture naturally formed the chief occupation of the people. They ploughed the field, as cultivators do today, by means of a pair of oxen bound to the yoke, and irrigation and other subsidiary processes have practically continued unaltered for the last three or four thousand years. Much attention was naturally devoted to cattle-rearing, and many a singer represents the cows as the sum of all good, which Indra has created for our enjoyment.
- (2) Among other important occupations, the first place must be given to weaving, both in cotton and wool, which supplied cloths and garments to the people. It is noteworthy that, as in later days, both men and women were engaged in this work, as well as in the subsidiary processes of dyeing and embroidery. Next came the carpenter, who constructed houses and supplied household utensils and furniture. They also built chariots, carts, boats, and ships.
- (3) Many of them were skilled in woodcarving and produced delicate artistic cups. Then there were blacksmiths, who supplied various necessaries of life, from the fine needles and razors, to the sickles and ploughshares, and spears and swords. Goldsmiths worked in gold and jewels, and ministered to the fashions of the gay and the rich. The leatherworkers tanned leather and made various articles out of it, such as bow-strings and casks for holding liquor.
- (4) Last, but not least in importance, come the physician and the priest. The former not only cured diseases by means of the healing virtues of plants but also chased away evil spirits, which sometimes possessed a man. The latter composed hymns, taught the boys how to learn them by rote, and served as the priests of kings, nobles, and common people.
Trade of the Aryans
There was trade and maritime activity; navigation was not confined to the streams of the Panjab, for the Aryans seem to have boldly ventured out into the open sea. There was probably a commarcial intercourse with Babylon and other countries in Western Asia.
Exchange in the time of the Aryan
Coined money was not unknown, but it had a restricted use. The ordinary transactions were carried on by means of barter, i.e., exchange of one thing for another. Cows formed an important standard of valuation; in other words, things were usually valued at the worth of so many cows.
War
The usual equanimity of the society was no doubt disturbed by occasional wars. Reference has already been made to the fight between the Aryans and the original settlers of the country. This must have been constantly going on as the Aryans advanced further and further into the interior. But the Aryan tribes also not infrequently fought with one another. We hear, for instance, that King Sudasa of the Tritsu tribe, in alliance with the Bharatas, fought with a confederacy of ten kings, and gained a complete victory.
Army
The main elements of the army were charioteers and infantry, and their weapons chiefly consisted of bows, arrows, spears, lance, and slings. The soldiers were arranged according to the clans and districts to which they belonged and were protected by helmet and coat of mail.
Amusements
On the whole, people led a merry, easy-going life. Men and women enjoyed themselves in festive assemblies with music and dance. Gambling houses were very common, and men whiled away their time in dice and drinking. Of manly games, chariot racing and hunting seem to have been the most prominent.
Sense of morality
It must not be supposed, however, that the people were lighthearted and lacked the sense of duty or morality. The Vedic hymns “give evidence of an exalted and comprehensive morality.” They condemn those who, with food 111 store, harden their hearts against the needy and praise the bounty of others, who give unto the beggar what he wants or minister to the physical comforts of the feeble Hospitality to guests is repeatedly enjoined, while prayers are offered to the gods to hurl destruction upon thieves, robbers and those guilty of telling lies. Sorcery, witchcraft, seductions, and adultery are denounced as criminal, and they acknowledge neither wicked divinities nor any mean and harmful practices. On the other hand, minstrels fervently prayed Agni to urge them on to holy thought,’ and to Varuna, to loosen the bonds of sin committed by them, the bonds above, between, and under, so that they could stand without reproach before Aditi.
Religion
The Vedic minstrels thus gave due weight to duties other than those of multiplying offerings to the gods and the punctilious observance of religious rituals, although it must be admitted that their religion was preeminently ritualistic, and the worship of gods was looked upon as the first duty of man.
Prayer
The Vedic worship meant primarily only oblation and prayer. The recitation of sacred, but stereotyped, texts was yet unknown; on the contrary, a great value was attached to the novelty of the hymns. The ascetic practices had not yet probably had any importance in the ceremony, which merely consisted of sacrifice along with devout prayers. These prayers have been handed down to us in the shape of hymns, and a few specimens will be quoted at the end of this chapter.
Sacrifice
As to the sacrifice itself, we do not know much in detail, but it appears that the offerings, consisting of ordinary food and drink, were thrown into the fire in order that they might reach the gods. Animals like horses, rams, buffaloes, bulls, and even cows were also sometimes sacrificed. But although the process of sacrifice was simple enough, the theory about it was quite a complex one, as the object and necessity of sacrifice were often regarded from radically different points of view. Thus it was sometimes looked upon as a bargain between God and man: The man has necessities that can only be, and actually are, provided by the bounty of God, and, in return, he offers food and drink to quench his thirst and satisfy his hunger. Sometimes this idea of give-and-take is entirely dropped, and sacrifice becomes an act of thanksgiving, mingled with affection and gratitude, to the gods for the benefits already received from them and expected in future. But, above all, there was a mystic air about the sacrifice. It was somehow associated with the supreme energy which keeps the universe in order. Without it, there would be no day and night, no harvest and rain, because the gods would lose the power of sending them. Nay, even the gods themselves, as well as the universe, are said to have owed their origin to an act of sacrifice, without which everything would again be in a state of chaos. Proceeding on this line of symbolism, the whole system of nature came to be looked upon as a vast and perennial sacrifice. The lightning and the sun were looked upon as its sacred flame, the thunder as the hymn, the rains and rivers as the libations, and the gods and the celestial apparitions as the priests. Whatever we might think of these mysterious fancies, no one can fail to be struck with the grandeur and sublime beauty of the conception.
The Vedic Deities
- (1) The gods, to whom the sacrifice was offered, formed a motley group of varied and complex character. It is true that almost everything in nature, which impressed the imagination or was supposed to be possessed of the power of doing good or evil, received the homage and worship of the old Aryans. But these were of minor importance compared to the personal divinities to whom the Vedic hymns were mostly addressed. These personal divinities were mostly deified representatives of the phenomena or agencies of nature and were endowed with human passions and instincts. The true origin of these gods is often betrayed by their names and attributes, such as ‘Dyaus’ (the heaven), ‘Prithivi’ (the earth), ‘Surya’ (the sun), ‘Ushas’ (the dawn), ‘Agni’ (the fire), and Soma (the sacrificial draught of that name).
- (2) Usually, the natural phenomena, out of which these gods arose, pass into the shade amid a variety of attributes superimposed upon them, so much so that in some cases the origin of these gods is altogether obscured. Thus Agni and Soma, while clearly retaining their physical characters, are credited with mystic powers, by virtue of which they kindle the sun and the stars, render water fertile, and make the plants and all the seeds of the earth spring up and grow. In Indra, on the other hand, the physical characteristics are practically hidden under the superimposed attributes. He is primarily the thunder god, but a host of fanciful myths have gathered around him. On the whole, he appears as the ideal Aryan chief, leading his followers to victory against the unbelievers, viz., non-Aryan inhabitants of India.
- (3) It would be impossible to refer to even the prominent Vedic gods in detail. Various attempts have been made to classify them. The earliest, and perhaps the best, classification is that of Yaska, “founded on the natural bases which they represent.” It places the gods mainly in three categories, according as they represent some phenomena in earth, atmosphere, or Heaven. We have thus (a) the Terrestrial gods, such as Prithivi, Agni, Brihaspati (Prayer), and Soma; (b) the Atmospheric gods, such as Indra, Rudra (probably lightning), Maruts, Vayu (wind), and Parjanya; and (c) the Celestial gods, such as Dyaus, Varuna (vault of Heaven), Ushas (dawn), Aśvins (probably the twilight and morning stars), and Sürva, Mitra, Savitri and Vishnu, all associated with the most glorious phenomenon of nature, viz, the Sun.
- (4) There was no hierarchy among the host of Vedic gods. It is true that some gods figure more prominently in the Vedic hymns than others. Indra, for example, is invoked in about one-fourth of the total hymns of the Rigveda. But still there was no recognized chief among them, like the Greek Zeus, the position of supremacy being ascribed to different gods, at different times, by their worshippers. The true sentiment of the Vedic Aryans in this respect is indicated as follows in one of the hymns: ‘Not one of you, ye gods, is small, none of you is a feeble child; All of you, verily, are great.’ Reference is, however, sometimes made, even in the Vedic hymns, to “the mighty and the lesser, the younger and the elder gods.”
- (5) Gods, who are sometimes said to rule over others, are elsewhere described to be dependent upon them, and such contradictory statements are by no means infrequent. Sometimes one god was identified with others, and the process went on till they arrived at the grand monotheistic doctrine, viz., ‘that the gods are one and the same, only the sages describe them differently.
- (6) In concluding this short sketch of the Aryans, we cannot but refer to the pious, lofty, and poetic sentiments which are still preserved in their hymns. The following instances are calculated to give some idea, not only of the characteristics of some of their principal gods, but also of their philosophic insight, and ethical conceptions.
- (7) The first three poems give a metrical sketch of the three principal Vedic deities, Indra, Agni, and Ushas. They are not literal translations of any particular Vedic hymn, but ‘combine in one picture the most salient and characteristic points in the representations of the deities which are contained in the hymns.
- (8) The last three verses are metrical renderings of select Vedic hymns. The first is a fine poetic description of the most glorious phenomenon of nature, the Sun. The hymn addressed to Varuna is a beautiful description of the divine omniscience, and the relations between God and man. The last one is a fine example of the lofty philosophical speculations of the Vedic Rishis, foreshadowing the doctrines of the Upanishads.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Aryan society was characterized by a rigid social structure known as the varna system, which laid the foundations for the later caste system in India. This system divided society into four primary classes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers). Over time, this social structure became more hierarchical and complex, influencing Indian society for millennia.
(FAQ) about the Aryan Society?
1. Who were the Aryans?
The Aryans were Indo-European-speaking people who migrated to the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE. They are known for their significant influence on the social, religious, and linguistic landscape of early Indian civilization.
2. What was the religion of the Aryans?
The Aryans practiced a polytheistic religion, worshiping nature gods such as Indra (god of war), Agni (god of fire), and Varuna (god of water). Their religious beliefs and rituals are recorded in the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts in Hinduism.
3. How was Aryan society structured?
Aryan society was organized into a hierarchical social structure that later evolved into the caste system. The four main groups, or varnas, were the Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers).
4. What role did the Vedas play in Aryan society?
The Vedas were central to Aryan religious life, serving as collections of hymns, prayers, and rituals. They laid the foundation for Hindu religious traditions and continue to be revered in modern Hinduism.
5. What was the economy of the Aryan society based on?
The Aryan economy was largely based on agriculture and pastoralism. Cattle, in particular, were considered a measure of wealth and played a vital role in their economy and social status.
6. What language did the Aryans speak?
The Aryans spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language that became the liturgical language of Hinduism and influenced many modern Indian languages.
7. How did the Aryans influence later Indian society?
The Aryans left a lasting impact on Indian culture, especially through the development of the caste system, religious practices found in Hinduism, and the introduction of Sanskrit, which became a classical language of Indian philosophy and literature.
8. Where did the Aryans originally come from?
The exact origin of the Aryans is debated, but they are believed to have come from Central Asia, migrating through the Hindu Kush mountains into the Indian subcontinent.
9. What were Aryan political structures like?
Early Aryan society was tribal, with leadership provided by a chieftain or king, known as a “raja.” Over time, as they settled and formed larger communities, more formalized kingdoms began to develop.
10. How did the Aryans record their history and traditions?
Aryan traditions were preserved orally through hymns and verses, which were later written down in the form of the Vedas. Their history, laws, and social practices were passed through generations via these sacred texts.