From 260 to 110 BC, China underwent significant struggles for unification (China Struggles for Unification), marked by the end of the Warring States period and the rise of the Qin Dynasty. The Qin, under the leadership of Qin Shi Huang, utilized strict legalist policies and military conquest to consolidate power, unifying China in 221 BC. This era saw the standardization of laws, currencies, weights, and measures, as well as the construction of massive infrastructure projects like the Great Wall. Despite the Qin Dynasty’s short reign, it laid the foundation for the enduring Chinese imperial system, which was further solidified during the subsequent Han Dynasty.
260–110 B.C. China: Struggles for Unification
Historical Event | China: Struggles for Unification |
260 BC | Battle of Changping |
246 BC | Ying Zheng becomes King of Qin |
230-221 BC | Qin’s Wars of Unification |
221 BC | Establishment of Qin Dynasty |
209-206 BC | Chen Sheng and Wu Guang Uprising |
206 BC | Founding of the Han Dynasty |
202-195 BC | Reign of Emperor Gaozu |
154 BC | Rebellion of the Seven States |
141-87 BC | Reign of Emperor Wu of Han |
Introduction
Few countries can boast that they have had approximately the same culture, language, borders, and religions continuously for more than 2,000 years, but such is the case with China. During a roughly 150-year period, from 260 to 110 B.C., a series of strong leaders and generals, through military force, welded together a group of separate and highly antagonistic kingdoms to create the unified state of China. They founded the long-lived and influential Han Empire, the model for all subsequent Chinese dynasties, and finally, they fought off attacks by a menacing tribe of central Asian nomads to define China’s northern frontier and establish control over the territory that would develop into the economically vital Silk Road.
Chaotic Times in Chinese History
- (1) The entire later history of China was forged in the wars of the period from 260 to 110 B.C., yet it was not a single battle that marked these turning points; in each case, they were determined by longer military campaigns or even a series of wars.
- (2) The heartland of China is a rough square measuring about 2,000 miles a side. This land is divided into northern and southern halves, each centered on one of the great basins of the Yangtze and Yellow rivers and each with its own distinctive climate and terrain. By 1700 B.C., large, culturally sophisticated empires, such as the Shang dynasty, had emerged along the Yellow River.
- (3) During a tumultuous 500-year period from 722 to 221 B.C., the core region of China fragmented into rival kingdoms that fought one another fiercely for dominance. The first half of this turbulent era is called the Spring and Autumn period, while the second half is the Warring States period. The famous military text, The Art of War, attributed to Sun Tzu, was written in and seems to reflect the style of warfare used in these chaotic times.
Chinese Armies and Technology
- (1) Chariots played a central role in early Chinese warfare. They were technologically advanced, with excellent wheels that were dish-shaped rather than flat and made with up to 32 spokes. These qualities made them stronger, especially when taking sharp turns. By using parallel shafts and breast straps around the horse’s chest, rather than a pole-and-yoke arrangement and a neck strap, as in many Western chariots, Chinese versions were also more efficiently attached to the horses.
- (2) The cab was large and typically held crew of three: a charioteer in the middle, an archer to one side, and a soldier armed with a halberd on the other.
(a) This halberd was a distinctively Chinese weapon with a long shaft topped by a large bronze head that combined several cutting edges and spikes, one of which was at right angles to the shaft.
(b) This weapon was held, sticking out one side of the chariot parallel to the ground, where it would slice into infantry or potentially even sweep an enemy charioteer from his vehicle. Used in this way, it has no equivalent in Western warfare, wherein the main weapon of chariots was the bow. - (3) The era of chariot warfare in China witnessed some massive battles. For example, at the Battle of An in 589 B.C., at which the army of the state of Jin defeated their counterparts from Qi, the Jin forces included some 800 chariots.
- (4) The reign of the chariot on the battlefield in China began to draw to a close with the introduction of the crossbow around the beginning of the 4th century B.C. Powered by a cranking mechanism and able to fling a bolt more than 200 yards, the crossbow was a great leveler on the battlefield because it did not require years of training to master, had a greater range than a bow, and could bring down elite charioteers or their horses at long distances. Soon, all Chinese armies incorporated large contingents of foot soldiers armed with crossbows.
- (5) At around the same time, horses began to be bred larger and could be riden; thus, the first cavalry units began to appear in Chinese armies. Much more mobile and cost-effective than chariots, cavalry gradually took over the roles formerly played by chariots.
Qin Unification
- (1) In the 3rd century B.C., the Qin, one of the many squabbling kingdoms, finally emerged to dominate and defeat all the rest, resulting in the unification of all of China, north and south, for the first time.
- (2) No single decisive moment marked the ascension of the Qin. Between 364 and 234 B.C., the armies of Qin fought at least 15 separate campaigns against their rivals in what amounted to an ongoing war of attrition. In 221 B.C., this series of conquests was completed by the man who became the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huangdi.
- (3) The Chinese army of this era was primarily an infantry force made up of troops with several types of weapons.
(a) The backbone of the infantry was issued the distinctive Chinese dagger-axe, supplemented by a bronze sword as a secondary weapon.
(b) Flanking these heavy infantry formations were other contingents of foot soldiers carrying crossbows, who would fire mass volleys of bolts into the enemy.
(c) For armor, the better-equipped troops wore conical metal helmets and body armor made by lacing together small plates of toughened leather or metal. Most arms and armor were fashioned of bronze. - (4) The cavalry were mostly archers equipped with powerful compound bows.
- (5) Officers were career professionals who could rise through 17 successive ranks, beginning with the officer in charge of a unit of 5 men. Promotion depended on demonstrating skills, performance in battle, and mastery of texts on military theory, such as Sun Tzu’s famous Art of War.
- (6) The Chinese system offered rewards for those who personally killed a certain number of enemies in battle, and officers in charge of groups larger than 100 could earn promotion or rewards for the total number of enemies slain by the men under their command.
The Han Empire
- (1) The Qin Empire collapsed almost immediately upon the death of Shi Huangdi, but he had set the vital precedent of a united country that could not be erased. The group that stepped up to establish a stable, long-lasting empire in China would be the Han dynasty, and they, too, would come to power by force of arms.
- (2) By 209 b.c., two main rivals had emerged. The first of these was Hsiang Yu, who represented the powerful southern kingdom of Chu. His opponent, representing the Han kingdom, was Liu Pang. With a constantly changing cast of allies, these two men fought a series of wars over the next several years, culminating in the Battle of Kai Hsia in 203 B.C.
- (3) Hsiang Yu began the battle by leading a charge straight into the larger army of Liu Pang but found himself surrounded and his forces in danger of encirclement. After a day and a night of fierce fighting, he was forced to retreat and establish a fortified camp that was immediately besieged by the Han-led army.
- (4) Hsiang Yu determined that his best chance was to break out with as many of his elite troops as could be saved. He spent the night drinking and saying farewell to his wife, then mounted his favorite horse and led 800 of his cavalry in a desperate charge.
- (5) The Han seem to have been taken by surprise; Hsiang broke through their lines and headed south, pursued by 5,000 of the Chu cavalry. After receiving some misdirections from a farmer, however, he rode into a swamp, and the Chu riders caught up and began picking off his men.
- (6) Eventually, he was trapped on a hilltop with only 28 men left. Heroically leading his men in a counterattack, he managed once again to break free, killing more than 100 Chu enemies plus a general in the process.
- (7) Hsiang now reached the banks of the Yangtze River, where a boatman offered to ferry him across to safety, but perhaps realizing that his fortunes would never recover, he refused, and he and his remaining companions turned to face the pursuing Han. Fighting until he was wonded several times, in a final act of defiance, he cut his own throat.
- (8) With the death of Hsiang, Liu Pang completed his conquest of the main kingdoms. He now took the title of emperor and changed his name to Kao-ti, becoming the first member of the Han dynasty.
Challenges to the Han
- (1) The Han dynasty was challenged by a dangerous confederation of northern nomads. These were the Xiong-nu, a group of tough and militant horse archers from the area of what is today Mongolia.
- (2) In 200 B.C., Kao-ti led an expedition against the Xiong-nu that turned into a disaster. His army was surrounded by a horde of Xiong-nu. Unable to deal with the threat by military means, Kao-ti had to adopt a policy of appeasement, paying tribute to the nomads and providing hostages.
- (3) In the aftermath, the Han undertook military reforms that placed a greater emphasis on the use of cavalry so that they could counter the mobility of the Xiong-nu with their own rapidly moving forces.
- (4) By 130 B.C., the Han launched a series of aggressive raids against the Xiong-nu. The emperor who oversaw these campaigns was Wu-ti; his subordinates managed to push back the Xiong-nu in a series of campaigns and secure the northern frontier. Because of these campaigns, China would permanently control the territories through which ran the eastern section of what would become known as the Silk Road.
Li Ling against the Xiong-nu
- (1) In 99 B.C., the Chinese general Li Ling led 5,000 infantry into Mongolia, but through an apparent miscommunication, his supporting cavalry force did not arrive. Li Ling continued to advance and was surrounded at the Tien Shan Mountains by 30,000 Xiong-nu horsemen.
- (2) Undaunted, the Chinese infantry closed ranks, with men holding spears and shields in the front and crossbowmen behind. Wave after wave of charging Xiong-nu attacked this formation, but the Chinese held together, with the crossbowmen slowly but steadily shooting down the enemy cavalry. Finally, the Xiong-nu broke off, leaving thousands of their dead on the battlefield.
- (3) Li Ling than organized his men in a mobile defensive formation and began the long march back to the Chinese border. Another army of at least 30,000 Xiong-nu now joined in and, for nearly a week, swarmed around the beleaguered Chinese, but with a stubborn series of rear-guard actions, Li Ling held them off and approached the frontier with about half his force remaining.
- (4) Now the Chinese had to traverse a narrow gorge, and the Xiong-nu were able to block the route and roll boulders down on the Chinese, finally breaking their formation. Only 400 of the Chinese made it safely across the border. At the last minute, Li Ling either was captured or voluntarily defected to the enemy, among whom he lived for the rest of his life.
Conclusion
The period from 260 to 110 BC in China was marked by intense political and military strife, culminating in the unification of the country under the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent establishment of the Han Dynasty. The period of 260–110 BC was a transformative era in Chinese history, characterized by arduous but ultimately successful efforts to unify the country, leading to significant political, social, and cultural developments that shaped the future of China.
FAQ about China: Struggles for Unification
1. What was the significance of the Battle of Changping?
The Battle of Changping (260 BC) was a decisive military engagement between the State of Qin and the State of Zhao. The victory of Qin, under General Bai Qi, greatly weakened Zhao and paved the way for Qin’s dominance over the other Warring States, leading to the unification of China.
2. Who was Qin Shi Huang, and why is he important?
Qin Shi Huang, originally named Ying Zheng, was the first Emperor of a unified China. He is significant for his role in conquering the Warring States, standardizing various systems (such as writing, currency, and measurements), and initiating the construction of the Great Wall of China.
3. What led to the fall of the Qin Dynasty?
The Qin Dynasty fell due to widespread discontent with its harsh legalist policies, heavy taxation, and forced labor projects. This led to uprisings, most notably the rebellion led by Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, and eventually to the establishment of the Han Dynasty.
4. How did Liu Bang establish the Han Dynasty?
Liu Bang, a former peasant and rebel leader, defeated his rival Xiang Yu at the Battle of Gaixia in 202 BC. He declared himself Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty, marking the beginning of a new era of Chinese history characterized by relative stability and prosperity.
5. What were the main achievements of Emperor Wu of Han?
Emperor Wu of Han, who reigned from 141 to 87 BC, is known for expanding the empire’s territory through military campaigns, promoting Confucianism as the state philosophy, and enhancing the cultural and economic prosperity of the Han Dynasty. His reign is often considered one of the high points of ancient Chinese civilization.
6. What was the Rebellion of the Seven States, and what was its outcome?
The Rebellion of the Seven States (154 BC) was a major revolt against the central authority of the Han Dynasty by seven regional princes. The rebellion was successfully suppressed by the Han central government, reinforcing the power and stability of the dynasty.