The Battle of Ain Jalut, fought on September 3, 1260, was a pivotal clash between the Mamluks of Egypt and the Mongol Empire. Taking place in the Jezreel Valley, near modern-day Israel, this battle marked the first major defeat of the Mongols, halting their westward expansion into the Muslim world. The Mamluk forces, led by Sultan Qutuz and General Baibars, successfully repelled the Mongol invaders, led by Kitbuqa, through strategic military tactics. This victory not only safeguarded the Islamic world from Mongol domination but also solidified the Mamluk Sultanate’s power in the region.
Ain Jalut—Can the Mongols Be Stopped?
Historical Event | The Battle of Ain Jalut |
Date | September 3, 1260 |
Location | Near Ain Jalut, in the Jezreel Valley, present-day Israel |
Belligerents | Mamluk Sultanate vs. Mongol Empire |
Mamluk Commander | Sultan Qutuz, Baybars |
Mongol Commander | Kitbuqa |
Outcome | Decisive Mamluk victory |
Significance | Halted Mongol westward expansion into the Middle East; first significant Mongol defeat in open battle. |
Mamluk Forces | Approximately 20,000–30,000 troops |
Mongol Forces | Estimated 10,000–20,000 troops |
Casualties | Heavy on both sides, but more significant on the Mongol side |
Introduction
What do these warriors have in common? a tribesman wielding a blowgun and poisoned darts on the island of Java; a German nobleman trained to fight in heavy armor on a great war horse; a member of the fanatical Ismaili Muslim sect known as the Assassins, living in a mountain fortress in Syria; a Japanese samurai raised to follow the bushido code; a tough Afghan tribesman serving the sultan of Delhi in northern India; a Mamluk warrior of Egypt; a soldier of the Song dynasty in China; a Russian lord in Novgorod; and a Burmese war-elephant driver? The answer: Within just a few decades, all fought against the same enemy—the Mongols.
Great Conquerors
- (1) The Mongols were arguably the greatest conquerors of all time. In three generations, they burst out of their homeland and swept across Europe and Asia, conquering every empire and civilization they encountered. By the end, their dominion stretched nearly 10,000 miles and constituted the largest contiguous land empire in history.
- (2) The Mongols are notable for the astonishing diversity of their enemies, the range of environments in which they fought, and the different styles of warfare they outmatched.
(a) The stereotypical Mongol warrior is a swift-moving nomadic horse archer, but many of their greatest successes resulted from mastery of siege warfare. From Syria to Korea, they captured walled cities and fortresses that were said to be impregnable by creatively employing a wide range of high-tech siege engines and weapons.
(b) They built vast fleets and launched some of the largest amphibious invasions seen before the 20th century.
(c) They were highly adaptable, quickly applying any new technology that seemed useful. When they had trouble breaking through the massive walls of fortified cities in China, they imported counterweight trebuchets from the west, manned by Muslim artillerymen.
(d) When they attacked castles in Syria, they brought giant siege crossbows developed in China. From China, they also learned the use of explosives, which they employed both as weapons and as signaling devices on battlefields ranging from Burma to Europe. - (3) There was one notable instance, however, when a Mongol invasion was permanently stopped by a clear-cut defeat in an open battle. This decisive battlefield victory was won by the Mamluk Egyptians at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.
The Opponents
- (1) The Mongol rise to power begins with the legendary figure of Temujin, a middle son of the tribal chieftain, trained to be an outstanding horseman and archer, able to endure harsh conditions and frequent deprivation.
- (2) By adulthood, Temujin had accomplished the impressive feat of uniting the main Mongol tribes into a single fearsome horde. In recognition of his supreme leadership, in 1206, he received the name by which he would become mostly widely known: Genghis Khan.
- (3) This leader organized highly efficient and mobile armies and dispatched them to subdue a neighboring rival state in northwest China and to attack the great central Asian power of the day, the Muslim Khwarazm Empire (based in today’s Iran and Afghanistan), greatly extending Mongol power.
- (4) The Mongol conquest of China started with the northern Jin dynasty, whose capital, Zhongdu (modern Beijing), fell in 1215. Another Mongol army invaded Eastern Europe and wiped out an entire army of heavily armored Russian knights.
- (5) Genghis Khan died in 1227, having appointed as successor one of his sons, Ogedei, who continued his policies.
(a) Under Ogedei, the Mongols completed the defeat of Jin China, taking Jin’s southern capital after an epic siege and moving on to invade Korea.
(b) They began driving deep into southern China, ruled by the Song dynasty.
(c) In central Asia, they conquered Georgia and Armenia and continued south into Kashmir and northern India.
(d) They returned to Europe, overrunning much of Russia and Poland and moving toward Germany and Hungary. This attack was cut short when Ogedei died in 1241. - (6) If the Mongols were unusually tough warriors, their opponents at Ain Jalut, the Egyptian Mamluks, were similarly skilled. The Mamluk warrior class was an interesting phenomenon of the Muslim world, in which young slave boys, originally mostly of Turkic ethnicity, were raised in what amounted to military academies and trained to be highly professional and dedicated warriors.
- (7) Despite their technical condition as slaves, Mamluks enjoyed fairly high status, and their officers often wielded considerable political power. During a time of internal turmoil in Egypt around 1250, they seized control, establishing the Mamluk sultanate. The third Mamluk sultan, the man who would confront the Mongols at Ain Jalut, was Qutuz.
The Prelude
- (1) The origins of Ain Jalut can be found in the scheme of Mongke Khan (a grandson of Genghis) for world conquest. This plan involved dispatching Mongke’s brother Hulegu to complete the subjugation of Persia, to eliminate the Assassins, and to obtain the submission of the main Islamic caliphates or, if they would not yield, to conquer them.
- (2) Hulegu set out with proficiency and enthusiasm, accepting the surrender of various minor principalities, some of which supplied troops to augment his army. He besieged and captured dozens of the mountain fortresses of the Assassins, thought to be invulnerable because of their location.
- (3) Hulegu then turned to the subjugation of the Islamic caliphates. The oldest and most prestigious of these was the Abbasid, based in Baghdad, whose current caliph believed that his religious authority would be enough to deter the invaders. In 1258, after a brief siege, the Mongols used their catapults to destroy one of the city’s towers and poured into the breach.
- (4) In 1259, Aleppo was taken by storm. Damascus capitulated soon after, and for all practical purposes, the Ayyubid caliphate toppled. The sole remaining major independent Muslim power in the region was the Mamluk sultanate of Egypt.
The Battle
- (1) Just as Hulegu was preparing to take his army south and crush the Mamluk sultanate as he had crushed the Abbasids and Ayyubids, Mongke Khan died. Hulegu was determined to return and participate in the selection of the next Great Khan, as was Mongol custom. He also decided to take the majority of his army with him. Mindful of his mission, however, he left behind a force of about 20,000 men under the control of his most trusted general, Kitbuqa, to mop up the remaining resistance in the area.
- (2) Meanwhile, in Egypt, Qutuz, the Mamluk warlord, had been preparing his forces to confront the Mongols as soon as it became apparent that they were intent on invading. Now, with the withdrawal of the majority of the Mongol army, Qutuz saw an opportunity to attack the smaller contingent before reinforcements could arrive. He resolved to meet the Mongols before they reached Egypt, while their numbers were at a minimum.
- (3) A wild card was the Crusader kingdoms. Although Jerusalem had been lost a half century earlier, the remnants of the kingdoms collectively constituted an appreciable force. They were the enemies of the Mamluks; accordingly, some Crusaders aligned themselves with the Mongols. But the majority were so alarmed by them that they officially adopted a neutral stance while covertly informing their old foes that they would be allowed to march through Crusader territory without opposition and even agreeing to help supply the Mamluk army.
- (4) Qutuz augmented his forces through an uneasy alliance with one of his former rivals, Baybars, who had gained a good military reputation fighting the Crusaders. Baybars was a gifted commander and an ambitious man; thus, for Qutuz, this alliance brought considerable risks. Yet together, the two men commanded a force roughly equivalent to, or even slightly greater than, Kitbuqa’s Mongols. The two armies met at the springs of Ain Jalut in modern Israel, only about 15 miles southwest of where the Battle of Hattin had taken place.
- (5) Baybars went ahead with an advance force and skirmished with the Mongols, sending word back to Qutuz to bring up the army. The battle took place on September 3, 1260. It appears that Baybars employed some of the deceptive tactics that the Mongols themselves typically used in battle. Over the course of the morning, the Mongols pressed aggressively forward, perhaps lured by feigned retreats.
- (6) The Mongol assaults seem to have been especially heavy on the Mamluk left, and this section of Qutuz’s army began to fall back for real and lose cohesion. They were temporarily rallied by a counterattack, but then the Mongols drove forward again and seemed on the verge of breaking through.
- (7) Sensing a crisis point, Qutuz personally led another counterattack that succeeded in firming up the Mamluk left, and the two sides now closed in a deadly embrace. This must have been an especially fierce encounter, pitting against one another professional warriors who were similarly armed, used the same tactics, and were equally well-trained and experienced fighters.
- (8) Sometime during this clash, Kitbuqa was slain, captured, and executed, and the Mongols’ line broke. The Mongol army split into several groups that met various fates. Some made a stand on a hill and were killed by Baybars; others fled into a swamp or into fields, where they were burned out; and a sizable contingent escaped to the north.
- (9) Qutuz was not to enjoy his success for long. He entered Damascus in triumph and headed south to return to Egypt. Somewhere along the road, he was assassinated by a group of his own commanders. Baybars was appointed the new sultan. His heirs would complete the process of expelling the Crusaders.
Outcomes
- (1) Ain Jalut is a decisive battle for three reasons. First, it stopped the westward movement of the Mongols—a significant achievement, given that most of the Western powers had proven vulnerable to the battle tactics of the Mongols; it is not difficult to imagine Mongol armies rolling across Europe and the Mediterranean.
- (2) Second, it ensured the survival of the Islamic states, which would rebound from the Mongol incursions to control most of the region.
- (3) Finally, it shattered the image of the Mongols as unstoppable and terrifying warriors. Ain Jalut proved that even the mighty Mongols could be beaten.
Conclusion
The Battle of Ain Jalut was a turning point that helped to shape the future of the Middle East, preserving the Mamluk Sultanate as a dominant power and ensuring the continuation of Islamic culture and political structures in the region.
FAQ about The Battle of Ain Jalut?
1. What led to the Battle of Ain Jalut?
The battle was a result of the Mongol Empire’s rapid expansion across Asia, reaching into the Middle East. The Mongols had already sacked Baghdad in 1258 and were advancing into the Levant. The Mamluks of Egypt decided to confront the Mongols to prevent further incursions.
2. Why is the Battle of Ain Jalut significant?
The Battle of Ain Jalut is considered a turning point in history because it marked the first major defeat of the Mongol armies in an open battle. It halted their westward expansion and preserved the Islamic civilization in the Middle East.
3. Who were the Mamluks?
The Mamluks were a military class that ruled Egypt and the Levant. Originally enslaved soldiers of Turkic, Caucasian, and Central Asian origin, they seized power in Egypt and established a sultanate. The Mamluk Sultanate became a significant power in the region, known for its military prowess.
4. How did the Mamluks achieve victory?
The Mamluks, under Sultan Qutuz and General Baybars, employed a combination of superior tactics and knowledge of the terrain. They feigned a retreat, luring the Mongols into a trap. The Mamluks’ cavalry then launched a counterattack, decisively defeating the Mongol forces.
5. What was the fate of the Mongol commander, Kitbuqa?
Kitbuqa, the Mongol commander, was captured and executed by the Mamluks after the battle. His death further demoralized the remaining Mongol forces.
6. Did the Mongols attempt to retaliate after their defeat?
Although the Mongols attempted to reassert their dominance in the region, they never succeeded in making significant inroads into the Middle East again. The Mamluks maintained their defensive position and continued to repel any further Mongol advances.
7. What were the long-term consequences of the Battle of Ain Jalut?
The battle solidified the Mamluks as a dominant force in the region and marked the beginning of the decline of Mongol power in the Middle East. It also served as a symbol of resistance against the seemingly unstoppable Mongol war machine.
8. How did the battle impact the relationship between the Mamluks and the Crusaders?
The battle indirectly benefited the Crusaders by curbing Mongol advances, but it did not lead to any significant alliances between the Mamluks and Crusaders. The Mamluks would eventually turn their attention to the Crusader states in the region.