The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indian subcontinent around 3300–1300 BC. This mysterious society left behind a rich archaeological legacy, including well-planned cities such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The chronology of this civilization is divided into three main phases: the Early Harappan (3300–2600 BCE), Mature Harappan (2600–1900 BCE), and Late Harappan (1900–1300 BCE) periods. Scholars rely on pottery styles, urban development, and trade networks to establish this chronology.
The Early Harappan phase witnessed the emergence of agricultural settlements, while the Advanced Harappan period marked the zenith of urbanization, characterized by advanced town planning, writing systems, and complex drainage systems. The late Harappan phase, marked by the decline of urban centers, remains shrouded in mystery
Despite extensive research, much about Harappan chronology remains speculative, as deciphering their script and understanding the reasons for their decline remain challenges. The history of this civilization continues to fascinate archaeologists and historians, offering a glimpse into one of the world’s oldest and most mysterious cultures.
The Harappan Chronology
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Historical Topic | Harappan Chronology |
3250-2750 BC | Sir John Marshall |
2500-1500 BC | S. M. Wheeler |
3500-2500 BC | M.S. Vats |
2350-1770 BC | C.J. Gadds |
2300-1750 BC | Radiocarbon dating |
Introduction Harappan Chronology
The problem of determining the Harappan chronology is a difficult task, and several factors, such as the time lag between the origin of the Harappan civilization and the growth of the civilization in the core area and its spread in the peripheral areas to the east and south, variations in C-14 determinations from different sites, the conventional date of the Aryan invasions of India, finds of Harappan seals from various contemporary civilizations outside India, the absence of calibrated data at most sites, etc., complicate the issue.
Chronology
Some dates suggested by various scholars based on their findings about this civilization are:
(1) Marshall
Sir John Marshall, whose excavations at Mohenjodaro constitute the seminal work on the subject, suggested that the occupation at Mohenjodaro fell between about 3250 and 2750 BCE, a period of 500 years, which he argued must not cover the entire rise and fall. Indus Civilization. Accordingly, he postulated a thousand years as a period of previous growth.
(2) Mackay
Mackay, who carried out further excavations at Mohenjo Daro (1927–28), assigned the lowest assignable level of Mohenjodaro to about 2800 BCE and the highest to 2500 BCE, allowing for a lifespan of about 300 years for Mohenjodaro.
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(3) M.S. Vats
M. S. Vats, who excavated Harappa in 1921-31, believed that the lowest levels of Harappa were earlier than those attainable at Mohenjodaro and proposed a time limit of c. 3500–2500 BC.
(4) C.J. Gadds
C.J. Gadd’s discovery of the Indus or Indus-like series of seals at Ur (Mesopotamia) indicated active trade contacts between 2350 and 1770 BC. In the Kassite context, the finding of several seals indicated an even later date.
(5) Stuart Piggott and S. M. Wheeler
Stuart Piggott and S. M. Wheeler, examining the evidence, including cross dates to dated sites in Iran and other categories of objects imported from Mesopotamia, such as etched carnelian beads, stone house urns, etc., suggested an overall span of 2500–1500 BC, with major trade contacts with Mesopotamia between 2300 and 2000 BC. However, Wheeler later corrected himself and suggested 1700 BC as the final date of the civilization.
(6) Sure
Allbright concluded in 1955 that the end of civilization must have been around 1750 BC. He corrected this date to match the Mesopotamian evidence.
(7) Dales
Meanwhile, Dales worked out correction factors concerning many sites, including Kot Diji, Amri, Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rojdi, and concluded that the adjusted dates of the Indus Valley Civilization-c. 2900–1900 BC—would bring the chronology of the Indus directly into line with the historical chronology of Mesopotamia. However, it must be emphasized that this rule applies to all Harappan cities in different locations.
(8) Robert H. Brunswig
Robert H. Brunswig, who has critically examined the evidence regarding artifact associations showing contacts with Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf and the radiocarbon dates of five Harappan sites, proposed a three-period framework for the Indus Civilization: the formative phase (2800–2500 BCE), the mature phase (2500–2200 BCE) AD, and the late phase (2200–2000 BC), after which the Harappan culture as a district unit gradually disappeared.
(9) J.P. Joshi
J.P. Joshi’s excavations at Surkotada added new data. Here we have three sub-periods of the mature Harappan and ten radiocarbon dates. The three sub-periods are from 2480 to 2300 BC, the second from 2290 to 2140 BC, and the third from 2130 to 2020 BC. These dates suggest that the mature Harappan period began in c. 2550 BC and lasted until c. 2050 BC. The MASCA calibration for radiocarbon dates was used to determine these dates.
(10) Gregory Possehl
Gregory Possehl made a detailed study of the data available up to 1993 and proposed a four-phase framework—a suburban or early Harappan phase between 2867 and 2000 Cal. BC; the final suburban phase (2651-2607 Cal BC); the suburban/urban transition phase (2572-4500 Cal BC); and the earliest urban Harappan phase (2453-2399 Cal BC).
(11) Rafiq Mughal
Although Rafiq Mughal recognizes that there are two phases of the early Harappan period, the first beginning c. 3500–3400 and the second beginning c. five centuries later, i.e., 3000–2900 BCE, he believes that the “basic trends” of the urban revolution were present as early as 3000 BC.
(12) Radiocarbon dating
After the discovery of radiocarbon dating, many samples from Harappan sites were dated using this method. Based on this method, Fairservice suggested the need to lower the dating of the Harappan culture to between 2000 and 1500 BC. His conclusion was based on his excavations in the Quetta Valley. In 1964, D. P. Agrawal plotted about two dozen dates, including those for Kot Diji, Kalibangan, and Lothal, and concluded that the total span of the civilization should be between 2300 and 1750 BCE.
(13) Three stages of civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization is often divided into three phases: the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, the Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.
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Conclusion
However, there is no written record of the Indus Civilization. Many scholars suggest that it belonged to the period between 3250 and 2750 BC, and radiocarbon dates show the civilization period to be between 2500 and 1700 BC.
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(FAQ) Questions and Answers about The Harappan Chronology
Q-1. What is the Harappan civilization?
Ans. The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was an ancient civilization that thrived around the Indus River in present-day Pakistan and northwest India. It existed from about 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE.
Q-2. How is the Harappan chronology divided?
Ans. Harappan chronology is typically divided into three phases: early Harappan (3300–2600 BCE), mature Harappan (2600–1900 BCE), and late Harappan (1900–1300 BCE).
Q-3. What characterizes the individual Harappan phases?
Ans. Early Harappan: Basic settlement, agriculture, and the beginnings of urbanism
Mature Harappan: flourishing urban centers, advanced drainage systems, standardized weights and measures, and a script that remains undeciphered.
Late Harappan: decline of major urban centers, shifts in settlement patterns, and final collapse of civilization
Q-4. What caused the decline of the Harappan civilization?
Ans. The exact reasons for the decline remain unclear. Theories include environmental changes, such as shifts in the course of the Indus River, and possibly social or economic factors.
Q-5. How is chronology determined?
Ans: Archaeologists use a variety of methods, including carbon dating of artifacts, stratigraphy, and comparative analysis of pottery styles, to establish the chronology of Harappan sites.
Q-6. Are there controversies in Harappan’s chronology?
Ans. Yes, there are debates about the timeline and nature of the decline. Some argue for a more gradual decline, while others suggest more sudden events.
Q-7. Are there deciphered writings from the Harappan civilization?
Ans. No, the writing found on Harappan artifacts remains undeciphered, so we have limited direct information about their written language.
Q-8. How does Harappan’s chronology compare to other ancient civilizations?
Ans. The Harappan civilization was roughly contemporaneous with Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. Each had unique characteristics but shared some similarities in terms of urban planning and advanced societies.
Q-9. What is the legacy of the Harappan civilization?
Ans. The Harappan civilization left a lasting impact on the cultural and historical landscape of the Indian subcontinent. Many aspects of their urban planning and technological advancement can be seen in later South Asian civilizations.
Q-10. Can I visit the Harappan sites today?
Ans. Yes, several Harappan sites, such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, are open to visitors in present-day Pakistan. These sites provide an insight into the achievements and way of life of an ancient civilization.