Origin of the Harappan Civilization

The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, emerged around 3300 BC in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. This ancient urban civilization is known for its advanced urban planning, impressive architecture, and sophisticated drainage systems. The origins of the Harappan civilization remain a matter of scholarly debate, with theories suggesting migration, indigenous development, or a combination of both.

One prevailing theory posits that the Harappan civilization originated from a mixture of indigenous cultures in the Indus Valley region that evolved into a complex society. Another hypothesis suggests that nomadic peoples migrated into the region and contributed to its growth. Despite the uncertainty surrounding its exact origins, the Harappan civilization flourished for nearly 2,000 years, with major cities such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa and a script that remains undeciphered. It eventually fell, possibly due to environmental factors such as changing river courses and invasions, leaving behind a rich archaeological legacy that still attracts historians and archaeologists today.

Origin of the Harappan Civilization

Introduction The origin of the Harappan civilization

The problem of the origin of the Indus Valley Civilization remains very complex, and different opinions have been expressed. From the first forays into Indian prehistory and proto-history by European scholars until the 1850s, it was widely believed that urban culture appeared suddenly in the mid-third millennium BC, relatively late compared to other areas of the Old World. It was therefore considered a plantation by colonists from Mesopotamia or elsewhere in western Asia. This conclusion was based on limited field data. Furthermore, very little attention was paid to human occupation before the advent of the urban character.

understanding the origins of this civilization

Our understanding of the origins of this civilization has undergone considerable change over the last four or five decades in light of growing evidence of farming communities in the northwest long before the emergence of cities around 2500 BC and evidence of continued development of these agricultural communities into urban configurations. During his exploratory tour in 1950–51, A. Ghosh discovered many sites in the Ghaggar and Chautang (Drishatvati) valleys that produced pottery that was identical to the pre-Harappan pottery at Kalibangan. This complex was named the Sothic culture. On this basis, Ghosh hypothesized a homogeneous pre-Harappan culture in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Sindh, Punjab, and Baluchistan.

Changing ideas about the origins of the Indus civilization

The perception of the origins of the Indus Valley Civilization changed dramatically with the discovery of an extraordinary complex of cultural sites on the Bolan River around Mehrgarh, which was discovered and excavated under the direction of the French archaeologist J.F. Jarrige in 1975. The result was the establishment of an unbroken history of settlement, beginning at Mehrgarh between c. 7000 B.C. and ca. 2800 BC and continuing in Nansharo from ca. 2800–2000 BC and in Pirak to ca. 1000 BC.

Agricultural economics from collectors

Mehrgarh was found to be suitable as a center for the transformation from hunting and gathering to animal domestication and settled agriculture. Structures of hand-made mud bricks have been uncovered that take the form of rectangular rooms in groups of two or four with fireplaces, apparently houses. There is also evidence of several crafts, such as the stone-blade industry. Grinding stones or pestles indicate the grinding of grains and other substances. Bone tools in the form of needles and awls were also found. A composite sickle was discovered in which several blades were fixed in a bone or wood handle with bituminous putty. Bitumen-lined baskets, necklaces of stone or shell beads, stone and bone pendants and anklets, and food offerings, including whole young goats, were found in many graves. Among the imported grave goods were Lapis-Lazuli beads (a local source) and turquoise brought from either eastern Iran or Central Asia. Shells of marine origin also show long-distance trade. The period between 5000 BC and 4000 BC was marked by the spread of settlement on the newly developed plain.

The most notable features of Mehrgarh

One of the most notable features of this period was the construction of many split structures of adobe, divided into small integral units, some in two rows with a central passage between them. According to the Allchins, some of these were houses, but most were warehouses or granaries. These, Allchins suggested, represent the distant ancestors of the “Great Granaries of Harappa” belonging to the mature period. We also have evidence of the beginnings of metallurgy. One copper bead was found in a period-I burial. However, the first regular copper smelting is evidenced in period IIB by the presence of a small copper ingot.

Evidence from Mehrgarh

From the Mehrgarh civilization, we have evidence of gazelles (subsequently extinct), deer, nilgai, onagers, wild boars, goats, sheep, and cattle (Zebu: Bos Indicus). In period III (4000 BC), we have the presence of terracotta models of humped cattle. As far as food grains are concerned, nearly 6,000 specimens have been reported. The two main grains were barley and wheat. L. Constantini stated that in Periods I and II, there was clear evidence that wild barley was in the process of transitioning to its cultivated form. And the same could be said for wheat. Constantine suggested that barley from Mehrgarh has closer parallels with barley from southern Turkmenistan and Central Asia. Other plant remains from Mehrgarh are a variety of jujube, date palm stones, and grape seeds, all of which appear to be local. In 3500 BC, we find the appearance of a remarkable series of small female terracotta figurines representing deities. The presence of ubiquitously decorated pottery points to the fact that in period IV, i.e., 3500 BC, the number of agricultural settlements was growing. In the Kachi Plain, several large mounds are an indicator of this expansion. Similar pottery designs are beginning to appear elsewhere, and there are further indications of trade and increased interaction.

Development of agricultural systems

During the fourth millennium BC, population growth and the expansion of agricultural settlements continued. The result was the development of an agrarian system in the plains of the Indus and its tributaries. The period between 3500 BC and 3000 BC is, according to Allchins, a period of expanding agriculture, and its successor is the period of early Harappan urbanism. Together, these are considered part of a single era of regionalization by J. G. Shaffer. In the later period, we have evidence of increasing interaction over a large area and sharing important characteristics with its successor, known as the mature Harappan period. In some sites, like Balakot and Amri, the process of change is visible. Around 3000 BC, the first traces of new motifs appeared, which became a characteristic feature of both the early and mature Harappan periods. At Rahman Dheri, we have a large number of incised marks or graffiti on pottery, which shows a recognition of the need to identify ownership, which, according to Allchins, can be seen as a significant step towards creating a script. Another important feature of Rahman Dheri is its planned form, ing a regular rectangular outline of the settlement and a regular network of streets and houses built of mud bricks. The latter, although related to the mature Harappan period, was built sometime in the last centuries of the fourth millennium BC. Rahman Dheri appears to be possibly one of the first urban sites with a city wall built at this early stage. Other important early settlements are Guila (on the right bank of the Indus), Lewan (Bannu basin), Sarai Khola (Potwar Plateau), and Jalilpur (left bank of the Rari River).

Discovery of some Neolithic sites

Some Neolithic cultural sites have been discovered in the Himalayan valleys north of the Indus Plain. The most famous place is Burzahom, literally the place of the birch, located on the Karewa clay terrace above the marshy floodplain of the Jhelum River. The oldest occupation dates back to 2920 BC. The settlement is characterized by a series of pits dug into the soft clay. The largest of the pits were pits, and the pole holes around the perimeter were perhaps conical roofs. Ashes were found in the pits and at ground level, and stone hearths near the entrances. Animal bones were also found in the storage pits. Other material remains include a wide variety of bone points, awls, needles and harpoons, stone axes, ring stones, and a distinctive perforated rectangular cleaver or knife of a type not yet known in India. Whetstones are found in almost every home. In the subsequent phase, which lasted until 1700 BC, there were traces of mud or adobe houses in addition to stone and bone industries. One copper arrowhead is reported from the end of this period. Several burials were discovered between the houses, mainly crouched skeletons in oval pits. Dogs were also sometimes buried with their masters, which Allchins says is unprecedented in the subcontinent. A stray painted pot depicting a typical early Indus buffalo deity shows their religious beliefs. Gufkral, meaning ‘potter’s cave’, is another important site in Kashmir that belongs to the Neolithic period. People practiced agriculture and domesticated animals here. C14 dates date to around 2400–1600 BC, and wheat, barley, and lentils are present from the beginning.

The earliest evidence of rice

No less surprising are the discoveries in the area east of the Indus system. At Koldihwa, and Mahagara, located south of Allahadin, the early age of the Neolithic culture is indicated by radiocarbon dates obtained from charred rice samples from the upper level (Koldihwa), indicating 5440 and 4530 BC. Neolithic pottery often contains rice husks. This is the earliest evidence of rice in any part of the world. Chirand, another Neolithic site situated in Bihar (upper limit is c. 200 BCE), has provided evidence to show that the beginnings of the culture were contemporary with the early Indus settlements.

Bruce Foote, Father of Prehistory

The next area from which we have the most decisive evidence of Neolithic settlement contemporary with early Indus cultures is southern India. and this is proven by early radiocarbon dates (from c. 3000 BC) obtained from the Southern Deccan, which correspond to the early Indus phase. These sites were first characterized as Neolithic by Bruce Foote, the father of Indian prehistory. Ash mounds have been excavated in Karnataka at Piccalilli, Utnur, Kupgal, Kodekal, and Pallavoy, which were cattle herding sites.

continuous cultural development

The preceding discussion shows that there has been continuous cultural development since 2000–7000 BC around the area where the Indus Valley Civilization took root. Around c. 5000 BC, trade links were already established with the coast of the Arabian Sea and with Central Asia. Around 4000 BC, the first copper tools were introduced. Around 3500 BC, settlements began to appear in other parts of the Indus system. The foundations of the subsequent period of incipient urbanism in the Indus Valley were well and truly laid in the Neolithic period.

Regular agricultural settlement

During the period that followed, we witnessed the emergence of regular agricultural settlements across the Indus Plain, with a focus on wheat, barley, domestic cattle, sheep, and goats. These settlements were characterized by well-constructed houses, often featuring remnants of city walls. Additionally, they utilized copper and likely bronze for various purposes.

While many aspects of earlier periods continued, this era brought about significant new developments. The distinctive artistic expressions seen in local figures like Balakot, Mehrgarh, and early Rahman Dheri began to give way to a less ornate style, which has come to be known as “Kot Dijian” due to its clear identification at the site of Kot Diji. This transition marked the beginning of a more uniform style, hinting at increased communication and trade across the entire Indus system, spanning from Balakot in the southeast to Saraikhola in the north and Kalibangan in the northeast. These shifts suggested a process of “cultural convergence” as communities across the Indus Plain began to share common traits. This trend reached its zenith during the subsequent Mature Indus period and extended into the realm of religious beliefs.

Notably, painted designs featuring a horned buffalo head appeared on pottery in several locations, including Kot Diji, Burzahom, Gumla, Rahman Dheri, Saraikhola, and Lewan. These early depictions foreshadowed the later horned deity of the mature Indus period. For instance, at Sarai Khola, we find a plant growing between the horns of the buffalo head, and at Kalibangan, a similar plant is depicted alongside a horn. As we progress into the mature Indus period, this plant motif appears between the horns of an anthropomorphic figure. Kot Diji, in particular, provides a clear representation of the entire buffalo head, complete with two six-petalled flowers emerging between the horns. Such flowers are also discovered on pottery in Kalibangan. In Lewan, although the buffalo head is incomplete, it features three pipal leaves rising between the horns, further anticipating the horned deity of the mature Indus religion. This artistic continuity reflects the evolving religious beliefs of the Indus civilization during this period of “cultural convergence.”

Emergence of the advanced industrial period

At this point, it is important to look at the sites where we have clear evidence of continued occupation from the Formative Neolithic to the Advanced Indus period. The first site discovered is the type site of Amri, first excavated by N. G. Majumdar in 1929. Excavations at Amri revealed a continuous sequence from the period of agricultural expansion through the early Harappan to the mature Harappan and even to the post-urban period. Another site is Kot Diji, where many characteristic Harappan forms are found. Excavators reported a clear typological development of the main forms during the later period. Kot Diji is surrounded by a stone fortification wall and has a well-documented cultural sequence from the early Harappan to the mature period. The third site is Mohenjo-Daro, where, due to a considerable rise in the water level, archaeologists have not been able to penetrate the lower levels, but it is speculated that an early Indus culture corresponding to the Kot Diji culture lies beneath the Harappan occupation. Similarly, Chanhudaro Mackay reported additional levels of occupation below the water table containing pre-Harappan or American culture. At Mehrgarh from Period IV (3500 BCE), we have evidence of a precise sequence anticipating the Mature Indus. We have evidence of the first terracotta seals and a single-bone seal. In the final period (2200 BC) we have adobe brick houses and indications of structures used for specialized craft activities. Similarly at Naushar, we have evidence of a phase of occupation that is transitional between the early and mature Harappan civilization. Here, two further phases of occupation continued until the end of the Mature Indus phase. A similar sequence was found at Rahman Dheri from the Early Harappan and Mature Harappan periods of agricultural expansion. Recent excavations at Harappa have clearly shown that an Early Harappan settlement lies beneath the Old Harappan city. At Kalibangan, radiocarbon dates indicate a broad Early Harappan dating of around 2900-2500 BCE. The settlement seems to have been surrounded by a mud brick wall. Early Harappan to Mature Harappan is also excavated at Banawali. A recently excavated site is Kunal in Haryana, which also provided a precise sequence from the early Hakra period (about 3000 BCE) through the early Harappan stage to the mature Harappan. In Rajasthan, however, indigenous cultural traditions flourished during the early and mature Harappan urban period and remained outside of metropolitan influence, although trade and other contacts must have existed. The sources of their trade were probably in Rajasthan itself, where there is evidence of an early settled population at a cluster of about fifty sites around Ganeshvar, located near the Khetri copper deposits, where copper artifacts and evidence of copper smelting have been found. Similarly, at Ahar, evidence of local copper smelting retained its character in both the early and mature periods.

Conclusion

The preceding discussion shows that since the 8th millennium BC, there has been continuous development throughout the north. The western region resulted in the rise of the advanced Harappan urban civilization.

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